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Research on Memory and Cognitive Science

Spacing Effect

Spacing Effect

Definition

Learning is more effective when spread out over time.

Research

  • Without reinforcement, people forget up to learned material, but spacing reviews can increase retention . [Source: Ebbinghaus, H., 1885, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology]
  • Students who spaced their study sessions improved their retention after one month compared to those who crammed their study material. [Cepeda et al., 2006, Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention]
  • Over six months, students using spaced practice retained more compared to those using massed practice (cramming). [Bahrick et al., 1993, Maintenance of Foreign Language Vocabulary and the Spacing Effect]

Dual Coding Theory

Definition

Learning is enhanced when information is presented using both visual and verbal formats

Research

  • Students exposed to both visual and verbal information exhibited an improvement in recall after one week compared to those receiving only verbal information.  [Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 484-490.]
Dual Coding Theory
Interleaved Learning

Interleaved Learning

Definition

Mixing different topics or question types to improve learning.

Research

  • Students using interleaved practice improved test performance after one week compared to blocked practice. [Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007). The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning. Instructional Science, 35(6), 481-498]

Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect)

Definition

Memory improves by recalling information rather than reviewing it passively.

Research

  • Students who engaged in retrieval practice retained more compared to passive review (75% vs 50%). [Roediger & Butler, 2011, Testing Improves Long-Term Retention]
Retrieval Practice (Testing Effect)
Forced Recall

Forced Recall

Definition

A specific form of retrieval practice where students retrieve information without external cues or prompts. This approach strengthens memory by engaging the brain in unaided recall, which is more effective than passive recognition or cued retrieval.

Research

  • Students using forced recall methods (free recall) demonstrated up to improved retention, compared to retention for cued recall. [Karpicke & Blunt, 2011, Retrieval Practice Produces More Learning than Elaborative Studying with Concept Mapping].
  • Combining Karpicke's results with Roediger’s study above, this suggests that forced recall memory retrievability is greater over one week with forced recall as compared with passive recall. 

Generation Effect

Definition

Individuals remember information better when they actively generate or create it themselves, rather than simply reading or passively consuming it. This active engagement strengthens memory and understanding by requiring deeper cognitive processing.

Research

  • Students who generated their own answers improved their retention after 48 hours compared to those who passively read the same material. [Slamecka & Graf, 1978, The Generation Effect: Delineation of a Phenomenon]
Generation Effect
Feedback Loops

Feedback Loops

Definition

Providing feedback to reinforce correct answers or to correct errors.

Research

  • Immediate feedback improves student learning and retention, with students scoring higher on assessments compared to delayed feedback.  [Source: Shute, V. J., 2008, Focus on Formative Feedback]

Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Effect)

Definition

Unique or surprising information is more likely to be remembered.

Research

  • Unique or distinct items are remembered more effectively than non-distinct items due to their increased salience. [Source: Hunt, R. R., 1995, The Subtlety of Distinctiveness: What von Restorff Really Did]
Von Restorff Effect (Isolation Effect)
Deliberate Practice

Deliberate Practice

Definition

Focused practice designed to improve specific skills through targeted feedback.

Research

  • Deliberate practice has been shown to improve performance over extended periods when compared to general repetition without targeted feedback. [Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review.]

Cognitive Load Theory

Definition

Managing working memory to prevent overload.

Cognitive Load Theory
Effortful Processing

Effortful Processing

Definition

Engaging deeply with material through active tasks enhances retention.

Research

  • Learners who engaged in effortful processing through active recall tasks showed an increase in retention after one week compared to passive review. [Source: Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20-27.]

Behavioral and Engagement Research

Growth Mindset

Definition

Belief that effort and practice lead to improvement.

  • Students with a growth mindset demonstrated higher academic achievement over a semester compared to those with a fixed mindset. [Source: Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success.]
  • Students taught with growth mindset principles exhibited greater confidence in their ability to overcome academic challenges compared to those with a fixed mindset. [Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Ballantine Books.]
Growth Mindset